New EST Practice two Reading 2026

Javascript is disabled

Javascript is disabled on your browser. Please enable it in order to use this form.

The Age of Reptiles: Dinosaurs in Geologic Time

from The Age of Reptiles: Its Antiquity, Duration, and Significance in Geologic History by W.D. Matthew

Paleontology reveals the history of life measured not in centuries but in geologic epochs spanning millions of years. Humanity, with its mere forty centuries of civilization, appears as a creature of yesterday—a fleeting episode amid vast temporal expanses. Adjusting our perspective to these immense scales proves challenging; we often misconstrue all extinct beasts as “prehistoric,” imagining dinosaurs coexisting with cave-dwelling ancestors in a single chaotic era. To grasp the dinosaurs’ true place, one must comprehend the profound separations between geologic periods, where faunas rose and vanished across eons.

The Age of Man aligns with the Pleistocene epoch of the Quaternary period, geology’s shortest span. Prehistoric savages roamed before written records, amid mammoths, mastodons, megatheria, and Irish elk—many now extinct, yet most fauna resembling modern species. This era featured the Ice Age, blanketing vast lands in ice sheets whose remnants persist in Greenland and Antarctica. Preceding it lay the Tertiary or Age of Mammals, thirty times longer, tracing quadrupeds’ evolution from primitive ancestors into horses, camels, elephants, and rhinoceroses, alongside vanished titanotheres and oreodonts. Primitive primates hinted at man’s collateral lineage, though no true humans existed.

The Age of Reptiles, or Mesozoic Era, preceded this—a panorama of reptilian dominance evoking an alien world. No familiar quadrupeds roamed; instead, reptiles filled every niche: carnivorous and herbivorous, terrestrial, aquatic, and aerial. Swamp-dwelling crocodiles and turtles mirrored modern kin, while sea-crocodiles, flippered mosasaurs, and long-necked plesiosaurs supplanted today’s whales and seals. Bat-winged pterosaurs partially echoed birds,their membranes stretched on elongated fingers, though enigmatic and poorly reconstructed. Fishes and invertebrates diverged from contemporaries—ammonites abounded like pearly nautiluses, brachiopods lingered sparingly, and early insects lacked butterflies, bees, or ants, featuring dragonflies and beetles until flowering plants spurred higher orders.

Vegetation shifted dramatically: early Mesozoic cycads, ferns, conifers akin to Norfolk pines, ginkgos, and giant horsetails evoked coal-forest gloom, sans deciduous trees. Later, angiosperms proliferated, displacing primitives (many surviving tropically) and fueling Cenozoic life’s ascent via nutritious fruits. Land reptiles centered on dinosaurs—short-bodied, long-tailed, long-legged walkers or runners, often bipedal like ostriches, balancing via tails. Ranging cat-sized to gigantic, they mirrored modern quadrupeds’ diversity: theropods (carnivores like Allosaurus, Tyrannosaurus) with serrated teeth and claws; sauropods (amphibious giants like Brontosaurus, Diplodocus) boasting giraffe-necks, elephant-limbs, weighing tons; ornithischians (beaked herbivores) including iguanodonts, duckbills, plated stegosaurs, horned ceratopsians.

North America during this era transformed ceaselessly: erosion leveled mountains, rivers deposited sediments into shallow seas, volcanic upheavals rebuilt; isostatic rebound from sediment loads triggered subsidences and emergences. Periods began and ended in uplift, fostering cold poles and arid interiors; submergences brought uniform warmth. The Cretaceous saw maximal flooding—plains from Gulf to Arctic submerged—yielding delta fossils preserving dinosaurs like late-Jurassic Allosaurus preying on Brontosaurus (evidenced by bite-marked bones, shed teeth). Upland records eroded away, leaving “snapshots” of coastal-swamp faunas, imperfect yet vivid. Dinosaurs reigned nine million years—thrice post-extinction time—succumbing to climatic shifts, mammalian/bird ascendancy.

Carnivores like 34-foot Allosaurus and 47-foot Tyrannosaurus embodied reptilian ferocity: bipedal, bird-proportioned, scaly-skinned (sans armor), brains inferior to crocodiles, instincts driving ambush rushes sans mammalian cunning. Herbivorous sauropods, amphibious swamp-dwellers, gulped soft plants unchewed, their light necks/heads atop massive bodies buoyed by water against joint strain. Preparation of museum mounts—excavating Wyoming quarries, piecing shattered fossils, modeling gaps via muscle studies—demanded years, yielding tableaux of Jurassic savagery. These titans, instinctive automatons, highlight evolution’s whims: reptilian giants yielded to intelligent mammals. True progress lies not in size, but adaptive intellect enduring geologic cycles.

1-Which choice best states the central idea of the passage about the Age of Reptiles? *

A. It argues that dinosaurs and early humans coexisted during a single brief prehistoric era dominated by ice.

B. It explains that geologic time spans are so vast that dinosaurs lived in a distinct, long Mesozoic world with its own animals, plants, and climates, entirely separate from the later Age of Mammals and the short Age of Man.

C. It describes how all ancient animals, from mammoths to dinosaurs, evolved simultaneously into modern mammals and birds.

D. It claims that most evidence of dinosaurs has been lost, making any reconstruction of past environments purely speculative and unreliable.

2-According to the passage, why is it difficult for people to understand the true place of dinosaurs in Earth’s history? *

A. Human memory cannot accurately record events that happened more than a few hundred years ago.

B. Written records from ancient civilizations deliberately omitted information about dinosaurs.

C. People tend to lump all extinct animals together as “prehistoric,” imagining them living at the same time, rather than spread across millions of years of separate geologic periods.

D. Modern scientists disagree about whether dinosaurs actually existed, which confuses the public.

The Age of Reptiles: Dinosaurs in Geologic Time

from The Age of Reptiles: Its Antiquity, Duration, and Significance in Geologic History by W.D. Matthew

3- The passage contrasts the Age of Man, the Age of Mammals, and the Age of Reptiles. Which statement best captures this comparison? *

A. All three ages were approximately equal in duration but differed mainly in climate.

B. The Age of Man is the longest and most important, while the Age of Reptiles is a minor episode.

C. The Age of Mammals and the Age of Reptiles were extremely brief, while most evolution occurred in the current age.

D. The Age of Man is geologically very short, the Tertiary Age of Mammals was much longer, and the Mesozoic Age of Reptiles was an even earlier world dominated by very different forms of life.

4-Which choice best describes the role dinosaurs played in their ecosystems, according to the passage? *

A. They occupied the same general place in nature that large land mammals occupy today, ranging from small forms to giants, with both predators and plant-eaters.

B. They filled only a small ecological niche, overshadowed by early mammals and birds.

C. They were exclusively aquatic animals that replaced fish and marine invertebrates.

D. They were primarily flying creatures that functioned as the main pollinators of early flowers.

The Age of Reptiles: Dinosaurs in Geologic Time

from The Age of Reptiles: Its Antiquity, Duration, and Significance in Geologic History by W.D. Matthew

5-The passage lists several types of reptiles that lived in the seas and skies during the Age of Reptiles. What is the primary purpose of this catalog of creatures? *

A. To show that dinosaurs were the only successful group while other reptiles quickly went extinct.

B. To illustrate that many reptile groups, including sea reptiles and flying reptiles, occupied ecological roles later taken by marine mammals and modern birds.

C. To argue that invertebrates were more important than vertebrates in Mesozoic oceans.

D. To prove that the fossil record of marine life is far more complete than that of land animals.

6-Based on the passage, what can be inferred about the relationship between flowering plants and later animal evolution? *

A. Flowering plants appeared early in the Mesozoic and immediately replaced all other plant types.

B. The spread of flowering plants and their nutritious fruits likely supported the evolution and diversification of higher animals, including advanced insects and vertebrates, in later eras.

C. Dinosaurs created flowering plants through their feeding habits and migration patterns.

D. The evolution of flowering plants had little to no connection with changes in animal life.

The Age of Reptiles: Dinosaurs in Geologic Time

from The Age of Reptiles: Its Antiquity, Duration, and Significance in Geologic History by W.D. Matthew

7-The passage notes that North America’s geography during the Age of Reptiles was very different from today. Which detail best supports this idea? *

A. The continent was already arranged exactly as it is now, but the climate was much colder.

B. Continuous volcanic eruptions destroyed all early mountains and rivers.

C. Alternating periods of submergence and emergence created shallow inland seas, shifting coastlines, and repeatedly buried parts of the continent under marine and delta sediments.

D. The continent consisted entirely of a single vast desert that never changed.

8-What does the author suggest about the completeness of the geologic record for dinosaurs compared with that for mammals? *

A. Both records are equally detailed, allowing scientists to trace clear evolutionary lines for every group.

B. Dinosaur history is better preserved than mammal history because reptiles fossilize more easily.

C. The Age of Reptiles is represented mainly by a few “snapshots” from certain times and places, whereas the Age of Mammals provides a more continuous “moving picture” of quadruped evolution.

D. Neither age has left enough evidence to draw any reliable conclusions about past life.

The Age of Reptiles: Dinosaurs in Geologic Time

from The Age of Reptiles: Its Antiquity, Duration, and Significance in Geologic History by W.D. Matthew

9-The passage describes carnivorous dinosaurs such as Allosaurus and Tyrannosaurus in terms of their anatomy and behavior. Which statement best summarizes this description? *

A. They were slow, heavily armored swamp creatures that rarely hunted.

B. They combined lizard-like heads and tails with bird-like hind limbs, walked on two legs, and possessed serrated teeth and powerful claws that made them active, formidable predators.

C. They were primarily scavengers that lacked the speed and power to attack living prey.

D. They lived mostly underwater, using flipper-like limbs to chase fish.

10-Looking at the image of the large predatory skull together with the passage, what feature most strongly supports the idea that this animal was a powerful meat-eater? *

A. The short, flat teeth with broad grinding surfaces suitable for chewing plants.

B. The delicate, narrow jaw indicating a diet of insects and small invertebrates.

C. The long, massive jaws armed with large, pointed teeth that appear capable of tearing flesh and biting deeply into prey.

D. The complete absence of teeth, suggesting that the animal fed only on soft fruits.

The Age of Reptiles: Dinosaurs in Geologic Time

from The Age of Reptiles: Its Antiquity, Duration, and Significance in Geologic History by W.D. Matthew

11- How does the image reinforce the author’s claim that some carnivorous dinosaurs rivaled modern elephants in bulk and ferocity? *

A. It shows a tiny skull that clearly could not support a large body.

B. It presents a heavily built skull with thick bones and numerous large teeth, visually conveying the strength and lethality attributed to giants like Tyrannosaurus in the passage.

C. It displays armor plates surrounding the skull, contradicting the statement that these dinosaurs lacked bony armor.

D. It depicts the animal perched in a tree, suggesting an arboreal lifestyle.

12-According to the passage, why do scientists rely on both bones and trackways (footprints) to understand dinosaur behavior? *

A. Footprints are more reliable than bones because bones can never be precisely dated.

B. Bones show only size, while trackways reveal that dinosaurs always walked on four legs.

C. Trackways provide evidence of gait, posture, and movement patterns—such as narrow, bird like treads and resting positions—that bones alone cannot fully reveal.

D. Trackways are used mainly to identify plant species rather than animal habits.

The Age of Reptiles: Dinosaurs in Geologic Time

from The Age of Reptiles: Its Antiquity, Duration, and Significance in Geologic History by W.D. Matthew

13-What is the author’s attitude toward the dinosaurs’ eventual extinction? *

A. Regret that such intelligent and adaptable creatures did not survive into the modern era.

B. Indifference, since their extinction had little impact on later life.

C. Recognition that a combination of changing physical conditions and the rise of more agile, intelligent mammals and birds probably contributed to their disappearance.

D. Certainty that a single sudden catastrophe wiped out all reptiles overnight.

14-Based on the passage and the image, what connection does the pictured fossil skull have to the author’s discussion of the Age of Reptiles? *

A. It illustrates one of the giant sauropods described as amphibious plant-eaters whose massive bodies were supported by water in swampy environments.

B. It represents a theropod dinosaur, a group the author identifies as dominant carnivores of the Mesozoic whose serrated teeth and bipedal stance exemplified reptilian predation.

C. It provides evidence of early mammalian evolution, supporting the author’s claim that mammals gradually replaced reptiles during the Cenozoic.

D. It depicts an Ice Age predator from the Pleistocene, the era the author describes as geologically recent and associated with humans and mammoths.

The Role of Mineral Nutrients in Plant Growth

Plant growth depends on a continuous series of highly organized chemical processes occurring in living cells, especially in the protoplasm, the active substance of the cell. While sunlight, water, and carbon dioxide are necessary, plants also require a set of mineral elements that enter from the soil solution and are used in specific ways in metabolism, tissue building, and reproduction. These elements differ in importance and function, and their availability often determines whether a plant can complete its life cycle.

Mineral nutrients can first be distinguished by whether they are essential or non-essential. Essential elements are those without which a plant cannot grow to maturity or produce viable seeds, because each has at least one irreplaceable function in physiological processes. Non-essential elements, such as silicon or sodium, may appear in plant ash and sometimes accumulate in appreciable amounts, yet most species can be raised to maturity in culture solutions that omit them entirely. This distinction is practical as well as theoretical, because fertilizer strategies concentrate on maintaining adequate supplies of the essential minerals.

Among the essential elements, a further practical division separates those that are generally abundant in soils from those that are “critical” because they often limit growth. Calcium, magnesium, iron, and commonly sulfur are usually present in sufficient quantities, though sulfur shortages are increasingly recognized on some agricultural soils. The critical elements are nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, and sometimes sulfur, because they are required in relatively large amounts and are frequently exhausted or locked in unavailable forms in cultivated fields. When any one of these is deficient in soluble, plant-available form, it becomes the limiting factor in crop yield regardless of the abundance of the others.

Each of these nutrients has a characteristic role in plant metabolism. Nitrogen is a central component of proteins, which are closely associated with protoplasm and with the synthetic activity of green tissues. When nitrogen is scarce, plants show pale, stunted foliage and a general starved appearance; when it is plentiful, leaves are more luxuriant and deeply colored, though excessive nitrogen can delay ripening. Phosphorus behaves almost as a physiological counterpart to nitrogen: an ample phosphorus supply tends to encourage early root development and more rapid maturation, and much of the plant’s phosphorus ends up in the seeds. For this reason, agronomists often summarize by saying that nitrogen mainly supports foliage, while phosphorus favors seed and fruit formation, though both are vital throughout the plant.

Potassium is closely related to carbohydrate formation, transport, and storage. In its absence, the synthesis or movement of sugars and starches is impaired, leading to reduced filling of seeds and storage organs such as tubers and roots. Potassium-deficient cereals often have shriveled grains, while root crops show lower sugar or starch content. Unlike nitrogen and phosphorus, potassium does not become part of complex organic structures in the same way; instead, it is present as a soluble cation in the sap and appears to regulate key reactions and osmotic conditions. Plants well supplied with potassium also tend to show greater vigor and resistance to disease, illustrating how mineral nutrition influences both metabolism and overall health.

Other essential elements have more specialized roles. Magnesium is required for chlorophyll, linking organic groups at the center of its molecule, and thus is indispensable for normal photosynthesis. Iron, though needed only in small quantities, is also critical for chlorophyll formation, since plants deprived of iron quickly become chlorotic and lose their green color. Calcium appears to contribute to cell division and wall formation and can mitigate the toxic effects of excess soluble salts in some soils. Sulfur, present in certain amino acids and other organic compounds, is needed in amounts that may approach those of phosphorus in some species, particularly legumes.

Taken together, these mineral nutrients illustrate that plant growth is not simply a matter of supplying water and light, but of maintaining a balanced, soluble mixture of essential ions in the soil environment. Each element fulfills characteristic physiological functions, and its deficiency produces recognizable symptoms and yield losses. Understanding these roles allows more rational fertilizer use and more effective management of soil fertility, supporting both plant health and sustainable agricultural productivity.

15- The passage suggests that an element is considered “essential” for plants primarily because it *

A. has at least one function that cannot be replaced by another element.

B. is present in large quantities in nearly all soils.

C. improves the taste of seeds and fruits.

D. increases the total weight of the plant more than any other element.

16- According to the passage, which best describes the role of nitrogen in plant growth? *

A. It is part of proteins that support vigorous foliage and overall tissue development.

B. It is an inert mineral stored in roots to prevent drought damage.

C. It acts only on seeds and has no effect on leaves.

D. It replaces sunlight when light levels are too low.

The Role of Mineral Nutrients in Plant Growth

17- The passage characterizes phosphorus as acting “almost as a counterpart to nitrogen” mainly because phosphorus *

A. directly produces chlorophyll in the leaves.

B. encourages early root growth and speeds up maturation of the plant.

C. is toxic in small quantities but beneficial in large ones.

D. only functions in old leaves and not in seeds.

18- In the context of the passage, potassium is most important because it *

A. replaces water when soils are very dry.

B. prevents all plant diseases regardless of other conditions.

C. permanently stores energy in the soil rather than in plant tissues.

D. supports the formation and movement of sugars and starches in the plant.

The Role of Mineral Nutrients in Plant Growth

19- The passage indicates that magnesium and iron are both closely associated with *

A. strengthening the seed coat against mechanical damage.

B. chlorophyll and the maintenance of green, functioning leaves.

C. storing excess carbohydrates in the stem.

D. preventing the absorption of other mineral ions.

20- The author’s discussion of “critical elements” such as nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium implies that these nutrients *

A. often limit plant growth because they can be depleted or unavailable in soils.

B. are rarely needed and can usually be ignored by farmers.

C. are always supplied in unlimited amounts by natural processes.

D. are important only for wild plants, not agricultural crops.

The Role of Mineral Nutrients in Plant Growth

21- The passage suggests that a visible symptom of severe nitrogen deficiency would most likely be *

A. rich green foliage with unusually early flowering.

B. thick, woody stems with little leaf tissue.

C. normal growth above ground but no root development.

D. pale, undersized leaves and an overall starved appearance.

22- By describing how different elements end up concentrated in particular organs (for example, phosphorus in seeds), the passage mainly emphasizes that *

A. mineral nutrients have specific destinations and tasks within the plant.

B. all elements are evenly distributed throughout plant tissues.

C. only seeds depend on mineral nutrition.

D. leaves and roots are chemically identical.

The Role of Mineral Nutrients in Plant Growth

23- The passage mentions that some elements are present in plants even though they are not essential. This detail primarily serves to *

A. argue that non-essential elements are more useful than essential ones.

B. suggest that all absorbed elements automatically become vital.

C. prove that soil composition never affects plant growth.

D. show that plants can absorb substances passively without needing them.

24- Which choice best states the central idea of the passage? *

A. Soil minerals are unimportant because plants rely only on sunlight and water.

B. Plant growth depends on a balanced supply of specific mineral nutrients, each fulfilling distinct physiological roles.

C. All mineral elements act in exactly the same way in every plant organ.

D. Fertilizers are harmful because they disrupt natural plant metabolism.

The Role of Mineral Nutrients in Plant Growth

25- In the infographic, nitrogen is visually linked to dense, dark-green leaves, while phosphorus is linked to roots and seeds. These design choices most directly reinforce which claim from the passage? *

A. Nitrogen acts only underground, while phosphorus acts only in the leaves.

B. Nitrogen and phosphorus perform identical functions in all plant parts.

C. Nitrogen mainly supports foliage growth, whereas phosphorus promotes root development and seed formation.

D. Nitrogen is a non-essential element, while phosphorus is unnecessary in seeds.

The Role of Mineral Nutrients in Plant Growth

The Role of Mineral Nutrients in Plant Growth

The Role of Mineral Nutrients in Plant Growth

The Role of Mineral Nutrients in Plant Growth

The Role of Mineral Nutrients in Plant Growth

The Role of Mineral Nutrients in Plant Growth

Your form has been submitted