Questions 1-11 are based on the following passage and supplementary material.

Corruption is a phenomenon involving many different aspects, and it is therefore hard to give a precise and [1] comprehensible definition. However, at the core of most definitions of corruption is the idea that a corrupt act implies the abuse of entrusted power for private gain. Classic examples include bribery, clientelism, and [2] the act of embezzlement. Other, often subtler and sometimes even legal examples of corruption include lobbying and patronage. While long-run data on corruption is very limited, historical examples suggest that corruption has been a persistent feature of human societies over time and space.

The unethical and often illegal nature of corruption [3] makes measurement particularly complicated. Corruption data usually comes from either direct observation (e.g. law enforcement records and audit reports), or perception surveys (e.g. public opinion surveys, or expert assessments).

Although precise corruption measurement is difficult, there   is   a   clear   correlation between perception and behavior; so available corruption data does provide valuable information that, when interpreted carefully, can both tell us something important about our world [4] to contribute to the development of effective policies.

For example, the data from perception surveys suggests that corruption [5] contrasts with human development, and a number of studies exploiting rich data from law enforcement records have shown that education is an important element explaining this relationship. Specifically, the data provides support for the idea that voters with more education tend to be more willing and able to monitor public employees and to take action when these employees violate the law.

The Global Corruption Barometer produced by Transparency International asks individuals across countries whether they perceive specific institutions to be corrupt. The chart presents, by institution, the global aggregate figures. The numbers correspond to the percentage of survey respondents who think that “Most” or “All” of each institution is corrupt in their home country. [6] The estimates in the graph show that in Lebanon, for example, people perceive domestic police forces and the legislature to be particularly corrupt.

 One of the most widely accepted mechanisms of controlling corruption is ensuring that those entrusted with power are held responsible [7] for reporting their activities. This is the idea behind so-called ‘accountability’ measures against corruption.

In a recent paper, Ferraz and Finan (2011) show that electoral accountability [8] casually affects the corruption practices of incumbent politicians in Brazil. [9] In municipalities where mayors can run for re-election there is significantly less corruption, and the positive [10] affect of accountability via re-election is more pronounced among municipalities with less access to information and where the likelihood of judicial punishment is lower.

Fire as a management tool long [23] predated European settlement of North America. Prescribed fire is a tool used by contemporary resource managers to meet numerous objectives, including reducing fuel loads and continuity, returning fire to an ecosystem, [24] to enhance wildlife habitat, improving forage, preparing seedbeds, improving watershed conditions, enhancing nutrient cycling, controlling exotic weeds, and enhancing resilience from climate change.

Factors that influence fire effects are vegetation type and seral stage, fuel conditions, topography, weather, climate, fire size, burning prescription, fire intensity, fire frequency, and fire seasonality. [26] In many, if not most, situations, prescribed fire is used in vegetation types where fire is a natural disturbance and a critical process influencing ecosystem structure and function. Fire suppression over the past century has disrupted natural fire regimes, and resulting ecosystems deviate considerably from what existed historically.

The realities of global climate change [27] have made it more apparent that there is only a limited understanding of its effects on ecosystems attributes, including wildlife.

This is partly because resulting changes will alter ecological systems and the underlying biotic relationships. Vegetation changes may render areas suitable for some plant and animal species, but unsuitable for others. [28] [29] New mixes of plant species, with unforeseen biotic interactions (e.g., competition, predation), may lead to the emergence of novel wildlife communities. Changes may occur at varying spatial scales, from micro to macro habitats and to landscapes and regions.

[30] Given this quandary, alleviating the problem is a convenient task.

Prescribed fire affects wildlife in various ways. Population responses by species can be positive, negative, or neutral; short- or long-term (or both); and they often change with time.

Whereas prescribed fire can create or maintain habitats for some species, fire can remove or alter conditions in ways that render it unsuitable for other species. Furthermore, a species may benefit from fire in one situation but not another.

Social issues, particularly those surrounding smoke and emissions, constrain where, when, and how managers can burn. Certainly, emission standards enforced by state and federal environmental agencies limit windows of opportunity for burning. Smoke [31] going into human communities is a health concern, especially for people with existing respiratory ailments. Many publics associate smoke with fire and conclude that fire is bad. Progress has been made at educating the public concerning benefits of prescribed fire to reduce threats of wildfire to people and property and also benefits to ecological communities.

[32] As a result, benefits of prescribed fire far outweigh negative effects. [33] They should be applied within a structured adaptive management framework, which requires developing and implementing monitoring systems to evaluate efficacy of specific fire prescriptions. Depending on monitoring results, prescriptions could be applied elsewhere or adjusted to meet management objectives.